Estimated Respiratory Syncytial Virus-Related Hospitalizations and Deaths Among Children and Adults in Spain, 2016-2019.

INTRODUCTION: Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes a substantial disease burden among infants. In older children and adults, incidence is underestimated due to nonspecific symptoms and limited standard-of-care testing. We aimed to estimate RSV-attributable hospitalizations and deaths in Spain during 2016-2019. METHODS: Nationally representative hospitalization and mortality databases were obtained from the Ministry of Health and the National Statistical Office. A quasi-Poisson regression model was fitted to estimate the number of hospitalizations and deaths attributable to RSV as a function of periodic and aperiodic time trends and viral activity, while allowing for potential overdispersion. RESULTS: In children, the RSV-attributable respiratory hospitalization incidence was highest among infants aged 0-5 months (3998-5453 cases/100,000 person-years, representing 72% of all respiratory hospitalizations) and decreased with age. In 2019, estimated rates in children 0-5, 6-11, 12-23 months and 6-17 years were approximately 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, and 6.5 times higher than those based on standard-of-care RSV-specific codes. In adults, the RSV-attributable cardiorespiratory hospitalization rate increased with age and was highest among persons ≥ 80 years (1325-1506 cases/100,000, 6.5% of all cardiorespiratory hospitalizations). In 2019, for persons aged 18-49, 50-59, 60-79, and ≥ 80 years, estimated rates were approximately 8, 6, 8, and 16 times higher than those based on standard-of-care RSV-specific codes. The RSV-attributable cardiorespiratory mortality rate was highest among ≥ 80 age group (126-150 deaths/100,000, 3.5-4.1% of all cardiorespiratory deaths), when reported mortality rate ranged between 0 and 0.5/100,000. CONCLUSIONS: When accounting for under-ascertainment, estimated RSV-attributable hospitalizations were higher than those reported based on standard-of-care RSV-specific codes in all age groups but particularly among older children and older adults. Like other respiratory viruses, RSV contributes to both respiratory and cardiovascular complications. Efficacious RSV vaccines could have a high public health impact in these age and risk groups.

Tools for Assessment of Country Preparedness for Public Health Emergencies: A Critical Review.

Recent international communicable disease crises have highlighted the need for countries to assure their preparedness to respond effectively to public health emergencies. The objective of this study was to critically review existing tools to support a country's assessment of its health emergency preparedness. We developed a framework to analyze the expected effectiveness and utility of these tools. Through mixed search strategies, we identified 12 tools with relevance to public health emergencies. There was considerable consensus concerning the critical preparedness system elements to be assessed, although their relative emphasis and means of assessment and measurement varied considerably. Several tools identified appeared to have reporting requirements as their primary aim, rather than primary utility for system self-assessment of the countries and states using the tool. Few tools attempted to give an account of their underlying evidence base. Only some tools were available in a user-friendly electronic modality or included quantitative measures to support the monitoring of system preparedness over time. We conclude there is still a need for improvement in tools available for assessment of country preparedness for public health emergencies, and for applied research to increase identification of system measures that are valid indicators of system response capability.

Social inequalities in tobacco-attributable mortality in Spain. The intersection between age, sex and educational level.

INTRODUCTION: First study of social inequalities in tobacco-attributable mortality (TAM) in Spain considering the joint influence of sex, age, and education (intersectional perspective). METHODS: Data on all deaths due to cancer, cardiometabolic and respiratory diseases among people aged ≥35 years in 2016 were obtained from the Spanish Statistical Office. TAM was calculated based on sex-, age- and education-specific smoking prevalence, and on sex-, age- and disease-specific relative risks of death for former and current smokers vs lifetime non-smokers. As inequality measures, the relative index of inequality (RII) and the slope index of inequality (SII) were calculated using Poisson regression. The RII is interpreted as the relative risk of mortality between the lowest and the highest educational level, and the SII as the absolute difference in mortality. RESULTS: The crude TAM rate was 55 and 334 per 100,000 in women and men, respectively. Half of these deaths occurred among people with the lowest educational level (27% of the population). The RII for total mortality was 0.39 (95%CI: 0.35-0.42) in women and 1.61 (95%CI: 1.55-1.67) in men. The SII was -41 and 111 deaths per 100,000, respectively. Less-educated women aged <55 years and men (all ages) showed an increased mortality risk; nonetheless, less educated women aged ≥55 had a reduced risk. CONCLUSIONS: TAM is inversely associated with educational level in men and younger women, and directly associated with education in older women. This could be explained by different smoking patterns. Appropriate tobacco control policies should aim to reduce social inequalities in TAM.

Desigualdades sociales en la mortalidad cardiovascular en España desde una perspectiva interseccional / Social inequalities in cardiovascular mortality in Spain from an intersectional perspective

INTRODUCCIÓN Y OBJETIVOS: El sexo, la edad y el nivel de estudios, entre otros factores, interaccionan e influyen sobre la mortalidad. En España aún no se ha analizado de manera comprehensiva las desigualdades sociales en la mortalidad cardiovascular considerando la influencia conjunta del sexo, la edad y el nivel de estudios (perspectiva interseccional). MÉTODOS: Estudio de todos los fallecidos en España ≥ 30 años durante 2015 (datos del Instituto Nacional de Estadística) por enfermedad cardiovascular total, cardiopatía isquémica, insuficiencia cardiaca y enfermedad cerebrovascular. El índice relativo de desigualdad (IRD) y el índice de desigualdad de la pendiente (IDP) se estimaron mediante modelos de regresión de Poisson utilizando mortalidad ajustada por edad; el IRD se interpreta como el riesgo relativo de mortalidad entre el nivel de estudios más bajo y el más alto, y el IDP como la diferencia absoluta de mortalidad. RESULTADOS: El IRD en mortalidad por enfermedad cardiovascular total fue 1,88 (IC95%, 1,80-1,96) en mujeres y 1,44 (IC95%, 1,39-1,49) en varones. Los IDP fueron 178,46 y 149,43 muertes/100.000 respectivamente. Las mayores desigualdades se observaron en cardiopatía isquémica e insuficiencia cardiaca en mujeres más jóvenes, con IRD> 4. No hubo diferencias entre sexos en desigualdades por enfermedad cerebrovascular. CONCLUSIONES: La mortalidad cardiovascular está inversamente asociada con el nivel educativo. Esta desigualdad afecta más a la mortalidad prematura por causas cardiacas, especialmente entre mujeres. Su monitorización podría orientar la Estrategia de Salud Cardiovascular del Sistema Nacional de Salud, para reducir la desigualdad en la primera causa de muerte

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: There is an interaction between age, sex, and educational level, among other factors, that influences mortality. To date, no studies in Spain have comprehensively analyzed social inequalities in cardiovascular mortality by considering the joint influence of age, sex, and education (intersectional perspective). METHODS: Study of all deaths due to all-cause cardiovascular disease, ischemic heart disease, heart failure, and cerebrovascular disease among people aged ≥ 30 years in Spain in 2015. Data were obtained from the Spanish Office of Statistics. The relative index of inequality (RII) and the slope index of inequality (SII) were calculated by using Poisson regression models with age-adjusted mortality. The RII is interpreted as the relative risk of mortality between the lowest and the highest educational level, and the SII as the absolute difference in mortality. RESULTS: The RII for all-cause cardiovascular mortality was 1.88 (95%CI, 1.80-1.96) in women and 1.44 (95%CI, 1.39-1.49) in men. The SII was 178.46 and 149.43 deaths per 100 000, respectively. The greatest inequalities were observed in ischemic heart disease and heart failure in younger women, with a RII higher than 4. There were no differences between sexes in inequalities due to cerebrovascular disease. CONCLUSIONS: Cardiovascular mortality is inversely associated with educational level. This inequality mostly affects premature mortality due to cardiac causes, especially among women. Monitoring this problem could guide the future Cardiovascular Health Strategy in the National Health System, to reduce inequality in the first cause of death

Social inequalities in cardiovascular mortality in Spain from an intersectional perspective.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: There is an interaction between age, sex, and educational level, among other factors, that influences mortality. To date, no studies in Spain have comprehensively analyzed social inequalities in cardiovascular mortality by considering the joint influence of age, sex, and education (intersectional perspective). METHODS: Study of all deaths due to all-cause cardiovascular disease, ischemic heart disease, heart failure, and cerebrovascular disease among people aged ≥ 30 years in Spain in 2015. Data were obtained from the Spanish Office of Statistics. The relative index of inequality (RII) and the slope index of inequality (SII) were calculated by using Poisson regression models with age-adjusted mortality. The RII is interpreted as the relative risk of mortality between the lowest and the highest educational level, and the SII as the absolute difference in mortality. RESULTS: The RII for all-cause cardiovascular mortality was 1.88 (95%CI, 1.80-1.96) in women and 1.44 (95%CI, 1.39-1.49) in men. The SII was 178.46 and 149.43 deaths per 100 000, respectively. The greatest inequalities were observed in ischemic heart disease and heart failure in younger women, with a RII higher than 4. There were no differences between sexes in inequalities due to cerebrovascular disease. CONCLUSIONS: Cardiovascular mortality is inversely associated with educational level. This inequality mostly affects premature mortality due to cardiac causes, especially among women. Monitoring this problem could guide the future Cardiovascular Health Strategy in the National Health System, to reduce inequality in the first cause of death.

[Educational inequalities in mortality and survival of women and men in the Americas, 1990-2010]. / Desigualdades educacionales en mortalidad y supervivencia de mujeres y hombres de las Américas, 1990-2010.

OBJECTIVE: Analyze magnitude and trends in educational inequality in mortality and survival of women and men in countries of the Americas. METHODS: Gap and gradient metrics were used to calculate inequality between countries in adult mortality, average age of death, life expectancy, and healthy life expectancy, according to educational level in men and women for 1990 and 2010. RESULTS: Between 1990 and 2010, the average number of years of education increased from 8 to 10 with no difference between sexes. Adult mortality (15-59 years) did not change: 1.9 per 1 000 women and 3.7 per 1 000 men. The slope index of inequality (SII) increased from -1.0 to -2.0 per 1 000 women and from -1.2 to -4.4 per 1 000 men. Life expectancy increased from 75.6 to 78.7 years in women and from 68.9 to 72.4 in men; absolute inequality decreased from 7.8 to 7.2 years in women and increased from 7.2 to 9.2 years in men. Healthy life expectancy increased from 63.7 to 65.9 years in women and from 59.5 to 62.5 years in men; the SII declined from 6.9 to 5.8 years in women and increased from 6.9 to 7.8 years in men. CONCLUSIONS: In the countries of the Americas, men are at greater risk of dying, die earlier, and live fewer disease- and disability-free years than women; educational level is a determinant of mortality and survival in both sexes, and educational inequalities are more pronounced and increasing among men, and are disproportionately concentrated in the most socially disadvantaged populations.

Health inequalities by gradients of access to water and sanitation between countries in the Americas, 1990 and 2010 / Gradientes de acceso a agua y saneamiento y desigualdades en salud entre los países de la Región de las Américas, 1990 y 2010

Objective. To explore distributional inequality of key health outcomes as determined by access coverage to water and sanitation (WS) between countries in the Region of the Americas. Methods. An ecological study was designed to explore the magnitude and change-over-time of standard gap and gradient metrics of environmental inequalities in health at the country level in 1990 and 2010 among the 35 countries of the Americas. Access to drinking water and access to improved sanitation facilities were selected as equity stratifies. Five dependent variables were: total and healthy life expectancies at birth, and infant, under-5, and maternal mortality. Results. Access to WS correlated with survival and mortality, and strong gradients were seen in both 1990 and 2010. Higher WS access corresponded to higher life expectancy and healthy life expectancy and lower infant, under-5, and maternal mortality risks. Burden of life lost was unequally distributed, steadily concentrated among the most environmentally disadvantaged, who carried up to twice the burden than they would if WS were fairly distributed. Population averages in life expectancy and specific mortality improved, but whereas absolute inequalities decreased, relative inequalities remained mostly invariant. Conclusions. Even with the Region on track to meet MDG 7 on water and sanitation, large environmental gradients and health inequities among countries remain hidden by Regional averages. As the post-2015 development agenda unfolds, policies and actions focused on health equity—mainly on the most socially and environmentally deprived—will be needed in order to secure the right for universal access to water and sanitation.

Objetivo. Explorar la desigualdad distributiva de resultados clave en salud determinada por la cobertura de acceso a agua y saneamiento (AS) entre países en la Región de las Américas. Métodos. Se diseñó un estudio ecológico para explorar la magnitud y el cambio en el tiempo de métricas estándar de brecha y gradiente de desigualdades ambientales en salud a nivel país en 1990 y 2010 entre los 35 países de las Américas. El acceso a agua potable y el acceso a instalaciones sanitarias mejoradas fueron seleccionados como estratificadores de equidad. Las cinco variables dependientes fueron: expectativa de vida al nacer total y saludable, mortalidad infantil, en menores de cinco años y materna. Resultados. El acceso a AS se correlacionó con la supervivencia y mortalidad y se observaron intensos gradientes tanto en 1990 como en 2010. Un acceso a AS más alto se correspondió con más alta expectativa de vida al nacer total y saludable y con más bajos riesgos de muerte infantil, en menores de 5 años y materna. La carga de vida perdida se distribuyó inequitativamente, concentrándose de manera sostenida entre los más desaventajados ambientalmente, quienes acarrearon hasta dos veces la carga que hubieran acarreado si el acceso a AS hubiese estado equitativamente distribuido. Los promedios poblacionales en la expectativa de vida y la mortalidad específica mejoraron pero, mientras que las desigualdades absolutas se redujeron, las desigualdades relativas se mantuvieron esencialmente invariantes. Conclusiones. Aún cuando la Región está en curso para alcanzar el ODM 7 sobre agua y saneamiento, los promedios regionales siguen ocultando grandes gradients ambientales y desigualdades en salud entre países. A medida que se despliega la agenda de desarrollo post-2015, serán necesarias políticas y acciones orientadas a la equidad en salud —principalmente hacia aquellos con mayor privación social y ambiental— a fin de asegurar el derecho por el acceso universal al agua y saneamiento.

Health inequalities by gradients of access to water and sanitation between countries in the Americas, 1990 and 2010 / Gradientes de acceso a agua y saneamiento y desigualdades en salud entre los países de la Región de las Américas, 1990 y 2010

OBJECTIVE: To explore distributional inequality of key health outcomes as determined by access coverage to water and sanitation (WS) between countries in the Region of the Americas. METHODS: An ecological study was designed to explore the magnitude and change-over-time of standard gap and gradient metrics of environmental inequalities in health at the country level in 1990 and 2010 among the 35 countries of the Americas. Access to drinking water and access to improved sanitation facilities were selected as equity stratifiers. Five dependent variables were: total and healthy life expectancies at birth, and infant, under-5, and maternal mortality. RESULTS: Access to WS correlated with survival and mortality, and strong gradients were seen in both 1990 and 2010. Higher WS access corresponded to higher life expectancy and healthy life expectancy and lower infant, under-5, and maternal mortality risks. Burden of life lost was unequally distributed, steadily concentrated among the most environmentally disadvantaged, who carried up to twice the burden than they would if WS were fairly distributed. Population averages in life expectancy and specific mortality improved, but whereas absolute inequalities decreased, relative inequalities remained mostly invariant. CONCLUSIONS: Even with the Region on track to meet MDG 7 on water and sanitation, large environmental gradients and health inequities among countries remain hidden by Regional averages. As the post-2015 development agenda unfolds, policies and actions focused on health equity-mainly on the most socially and environmentally deprived-will be needed in order to secure the right for universal access to water and sanitation.

OBJETIVO:Explorar la desigualdad distributiva de resultados clave en salud determinada por la cobertura de acceso a agua y saneamiento (AS) entre países en la Región de las Américas. MÉTODOS: Se diseñó un estudio ecológico para explorar la magnitud y el cambio en el tiempo de métricas estándar de brecha y gradiente de desigualdades ambientales en salud a nivel país en 1990 y 2010 entre los 35 países de las Américas. El acceso a agua potable y el acceso a instalaciones sanitarias mejoradas fueron seleccionados como estratificadores de equidad. Las cinco variables dependientes fueron: expectativa de vida al nacer total y saludable, mortalidad infantil, en menores de cinco años y materna. RESULTADOS: El acceso a AS se correlacionó con la supervivencia y mortalidad y se observaron intensos gradientes tanto en 1990 como en 2010. Un acceso a AS más alto se correspondió con más alta expectativa de vida al nacer total y saludable y con más bajos riesgos de muerte infantil, en menores de 5 años y materna. La carga de vida perdida se distribuyó inequitativamente, concentrándose de manera sostenida entre los más desaventajados ambientalmente, quienes acarrearon hasta dos veces la carga que hubieran acarreado si el acceso a AS hubiese estado equitativamente distribuido. Los promedios poblacionales en la expectativa de vida y la mortalidad específica mejoraron pero, mientras que las desigualdades absolutas se redujeron, las desigualdades relativas se mantuvieron esencialmente invariantes. CONCLUSIONES: Aún cuando la Región está en curso para alcanzar el ODM 7 sobre agua y saneamiento, los promedios regionales siguen ocultando grandes gradientes ambientales y desigualdades en salud entre países. A medida que se despliega la agenda de desarrollo post-2015, serán necesarias políticas y acciones orientadas a la equidad en salud -principalmente hacia aquellos con mayor privación social y ambiental- a fin de asegurar el derecho por el acceso universal al agua y saneamiento.

Desigualdades educacionales en mortalidad y supervivencia de mujeres y hombres de las Américas, 1990-2010 / Educational inequalities in mortality and survival of women and men in the Americas, 1990-2010

OBJETIVO: Analizar la magnitud y tendencias de las desigualdades educacionales en mortalidad y supervivencia de mujeres y hombres entre países de las Américas. MÉTODOS: Se calcularon métricas de brecha y gradiente de desigualdad en mortalidad adulta, edad promedio de muerte, esperanza de vida y esperanza de vida saludable, según nivel educativo entre países en hombres y mujeres para 1990 y 2010. RESULTADOS: Entre 1990-2010 el promedio de años de escolaridad aumentó de 8 a 10 sin diferencia entre sexos. La tasa de mortalidad adulta (15-59 años) no cambió: 1,9 por 1 000 mujeres y 3,7 por 1 000 hombres. El índice de desigualdad de la pendiente aumentó de -1,0 a -2,0 por 1 000 mujeres y de -1,2 a -4,4 por 1 000 hombres. La esperanza de vida aumentó de 75,6 a 78,7 años en mujeres y de 68,9 a 72,4 en hombres; la desigualdad absoluta disminuyó de 7,8 a 7,2 años en mujeres y aumentó de 7,2 a 9,2 años en hombres. La esperanza de vida saludable aumentó de 63,7 a 65,9 años en mujeres y de 59,5 a 62,5 años en hombres; el índice de desigualdad de la pendiente se redujo de 6,9 a 5,8 años en mujeres y aumentó de 6,9 a 7,8 años en hombres. CONCLUSIONES: Entre países de las Américas, los hombres tienen mayor riesgo de morir, mueren más tempranamente y viven menos años libres de enfermedad y discapacidad que las mujeres; el nivel educativo es un determinante de la mortalidad y la sobrevida en ambos sexos y las desigualdades educacionales son más pronunciadas y ascendentes entre hombres y desproporcionadamente concentradas en las poblaciones socialmente más desaventajadas.

OBJECTIVE: Analyze magnitude and trends in educational inequality in mortality and survival of women and men in countries of the Americas. METHODS: Gap and gradient metrics were used to calculate inequality between countries in adult mortality, average age of death, life expectancy, and healthy life expectancy, according to educational level in men and women for 1990 and 2010. RESULTS: Between 1990 and 2010, the average number of years of education increased from 8 to 10 with no difference between sexes. Adult mortality (15-59 years) did not change: 1.9 per 1 000 women and 3.7 per 1 000 men. The slope index of inequality (SII) increased from -1.0 to -2.0 per 1 000 women and from -1.2 to -4.4 per 1 000 men. Life expectancy increased from 75.6 to 78.7 years in women and from 68.9 to 72.4 in men; absolute inequality decreased from 7.8 to 7.2 years in women and increased from 7.2 to 9.2 years in men. Healthy life expectancy increased from 63.7 to 65.9 years in women and from 59.5 to 62.5 years in men; the SII declined from 6.9 to 5.8 years in women and increased from 6.9 to 7.8 years in men. CONCLUSIONS: In the countries of the Americas, men are at greater risk of dying, die earlier, and live fewer disease- and disability-free years than women; educational level is a determinant of mortality and survival in both sexes, and educational inequalities are more pronounced and increasing among men, and are disproportionately concentrated in the most socially disadvantaged populations.

Health inequalities by gradients of access to water and sanitation between countries in the Americas, 1990 and 2010.

OBJECTIVE: To explore distributional inequality of key health outcomes as determined by access coverage to water and sanitation (WS) between countries in the Region of the Americas. METHODS: An ecological study was designed to explore the magnitude and change-over-time of standard gap and gradient metrics of environmental inequalities in health at the country level in 1990 and 2010 among the 35 countries of the Americas. Access to drinking water and access to improved sanitation facilities were selected as equity stratifiers. Five dependent variables were: total and healthy life expectancies at birth, and infant, under-5, and maternal mortality. RESULTS: Access to WS correlated with survival and mortality, and strong gradients were seen in both 1990 and 2010. Higher WS access corresponded to higher life expectancy and healthy life expectancy and lower infant, under-5, and maternal mortality risks. Burden of life lost was unequally distributed, steadily concentrated among the most environmentally disadvantaged, who carried up to twice the burden than they would if WS were fairly distributed. Population averages in life expectancy and specific mortality improved, but whereas absolute inequalities decreased, relative inequalities remained mostly invariant. CONCLUSIONS: Even with the Region on track to meet MDG 7 on water and sanitation, large environmental gradients and health inequities among countries remain hidden by Regional averages. As the post-2015 development agenda unfolds, policies and actions focused on health equity-mainly on the most socially and environmentally deprived-will be needed in order to secure the right for universal access to water and sanitation.

Desigualdades educacionales en mortalidad y supervivencia de mujeres y hombres de las Américas, 1990–2010 / Educational inequalities in mortality and survival of women and men in the Americas, 1990–2010

Objetivo. Analizar la magnitud y tendencias de las desigualdades educacionales en mortalidad y supervivencia de mujeres y hombres entre países de las Américas. Métodos. Se calcularon métricas de brecha y gradiente de desigualdad en mortalidad adulta, edad promedio de muerte, esperanza de vida y esperanza de vida saludable, según nivel educativo entre países en hombres y mujeres para 1990 y 2010. Resultados. Entre 1990–2010 el promedio de años de escolaridad aumentó de 8 a 10 sin diferencia entre sexos. La tasa de mortalidad adulta (15–59 años) no cambió: 1,9 por 1 000 mujeres y 3,7 por 1 000 hombres. El índice de desigualdad de la pendiente aumentó de –1,0 a –2,0 por 1 000 mujeres y de –1,2 a –4,4 por 1 000 hombres. La esperanza de vida aumentó de 75,6 a 78,7 años en mujeres y de 68,9 a 72,4 en hombres; la desigualdad absoluta disminuyó de 7,8 a 7,2 años en mujeres y aumentó de 7,2 a 9,2 años en hombres. La esperanza de vida saludable aumentó de 63,7 a 65,9 años en mujeres y de 59,5 a 62,5 años en hombres; el índice de desigualdad de la pendiente se redujo de 6,9 a 5,8 años en mujeres y aumentó de 6,9 a 7,8 años en hombres. Conclusiones. Entre países de las Américas, los hombres tienen mayor riesgo de morir, mueren más tempranamente y viven menos años libres de enfermedad y discapacidad que las mujeres; el nivel educativo es un determinante de la mortalidad y la sobrevida en ambos sexos y las desigualdades educacionales son más pronunciadas y ascendentes entre hombres y desproporcionadamente concentradas en las poblaciones socialmente más desaventajadas.

Objective. Analyze magnitude and trends in educational inequality in mortality and survival of women and men in countries of the Americas. Methods. Gap and gradient metrics were used to calculate inequality between countries in adult mortality, average age of death, life expectancy, and healthy life expectancy, according to educational level in men and women for 1990 and 2010. Results. Between 1990 and 2010, the average number of years of education increased from 8 to 10 with no difference between sexes. Adult mortality (15-59 years) did not change: 1.9 per 1 000 women and 3.7 per 1 000 men. The slope index of inequality (SII) increased from –1.0 to –2.0 per 1 000 women and from –1.2 to –4.4 per 1 000 men. Life expectancy increased from 75.6 to 78.7 years in women and from 68.9 to 72.4 in men; absolute inequality decreased from 7.8 to 7.2 years in women and increased from 7.2 to 9.2 years in men. Healthy life expectancy increased from 63.7 to 65.9 years in women and from 59.5 to 62.5 years in men; the SII declined from 6.9 to 5.8 years in women and increased from 6.9 to 7.8 years in men. Conclusions. In the countries of the Americas, men are at greater risk of dying, die earlier, and live fewer disease- and disability-free years than women; educational level is a determinant of mortality and survival in both sexes, and educational inequalities are more pronounced and increasing among men, and are disproportionately concentrated in the most socially disadvantaged populations.